use checkboxes to select items you wish to download

  

In the early 1960s, Gabriele Veneziano proposed a model to explain the systematic relationship between the spin and the mass of certain short-lived 'hadrons,' which are any of a class of subatomic particles that interact by the strong interaction and, which turned out to be the quantized motion not of a particle or a point but of a 'string.' Later, it was realized that at higher energies his theory was "less accurate because [when] features at smaller distance scales are being probed...the flux tubes produced by the strong force are no longer strings" (Hooft 1997:157).    In the early 1960s, Roger Penrose introduced new mathematical techniques to solve Einstein's equations where exact answers were unavailable because of asymmetry.     In the 1960s, Robert MacArthur and his colleagues invented simple holistic ecological models.  His program in population ecology was aimed at bringing community ecology, e.g., the study of ant colonies, into the modern synthesis. In the 1960s, Ilya Prigogine theorized that the first cells were thermodynamic 'dissipative structures,' that is, they organized themselves, and with the influx of energy (in the form of food or sunlight), became more instead of less organized.     In 1961, Benjamin D. Hall and Sol Spiegelman, working with phage, published proof that messenger RNA carries a specific message, confirming Volkin's and Astrachan's results (Hall and Spiegelman 1961). In 1961, Marshall Warren Nirenberg and J. Heinrich Matthaei deciphered the first code group, a sequence of nucleotides that specified the amino acid phenylalanine.  This they accomplished by adding artificial RNA, in this case, polytidylic acid, to a cell-free system in which the ribosomes would bind with the tRNA molecule complementary to the codon carrying the specific amino acid called for by the one-word message.  Their announcement set off a race to decipher the rest of the code by Brenner, Ochoa, Crick, and others (Nirenberg and Matthaei 1961). In 1961, Peter Denis Mitchell, developing Keilin's idea of a respiratory chain in the context of oxidative and photosynthetic phosphorylation, postulated energy coupling by an ion gradient, which is known as the chemiosmotic hypothesis.   Mitchell proposed that electron transport and phosphorylation are not chemically linked, but rather coupled only by a transmembrane current of protons (Mitchell 1961). In 1961, Wigner proposed that self-replication is probable in terms of quantum mechanics, assuming that living states exist (which is to say that the formation of a single protein molecule by random means is infinitely improbable)(Wigner 1961:168-181). In 1961, David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel published results which showed that an anesthetized cat's visual cortex showed activity even though its brain waves showed it more asleep than awake.  Later, they determined that, in the physiology of vision, neurons respond first to dark edges, rather than a spot of light. In 1961, Roger W. Sperry published results of his studies of lateralization in animal brains in which disconnected cerebral hemispheres could be taught in such a way that one hemisphere learned one response while the other hemisphere learned a different response. In 1961, Richard C. Lewontin was the first to explicitly apply game theory to evolutionary biology, pitting species against nature and seeking survival strategies. In 1961, Holland circulated a technical report entitled "A Logical Theory of Adaptive Systems Informally Described," in which he propounded a general theory of adaption, i.e., if an agent is going to be adaptive, it requires feedback. In 1961, Gell-Mann and, independently, Yuval Ne'eman invented a three-dimensional symmetrical particle physics equivalent of the periodic table for 'baryons' and a similar one for mesons--hadrons consist of baryons and mesons--according to a field theory model Gell-Mann called the 'Eightfold way.'  Consisting of  Lie group SU(3), the simplest group which isn't a composite of SU(2) and SU(1), it has eight generators, two of which "represent isotopic spin and strangeness; the other six are rules for changing the value of the first two...during elementary particle interactions" (Crease and Mann 1986:266).  All the particles have the same spin (½) and the same parity (+1); two of the particles are at the center of a hexagon and the other six are at the points (Gell-Mann 1961:7-57; Ne'eman 1961:58-65).  The reality of the scheme for mesons was predicated on the existence of a new particle, 'omega-minus (or -negative),' which was confirmed three years later.  In 1961, Sheldon Lee Glashow and Gell-Mann established that the dominant feature of the Yang-Mills strong interaction was its SU(3) symmetry (Glashow and Gell-Mann 1961:437-460).  In 1961, Jeffrey Goldstone created a theorem in which he "generalized Nambu's work, using as his example a renormalizable theory of a complex spin-zero quantum field" (Brown et al. 1997b:483).  This massless particle of zero spin came to be known as the Nambu-Goldstone boson.  In 1961, Vitalii Lazarevich Ginzburg suggested that the "enormous energy required to power a [radio] source like Cynus A might be provided by the gravitational contraction of the central part of the galaxy concerned" (Gribbin 1995:105).  In the following few years, this suggestion was developed by Shklovski, Fowler, Hoyle, Salpeter, Yakov B. Zel'dovich, Igor D. Novikov, and others who hooked up the discovery of quasars with black-holes lying at the heart of distant, i.e., young and gaseous, galaxies. In 1961, E. A. Ohm reported ineliminatable microwave static with a temperature of about 3 degrees K.     In 1962, Monod, Jean-Pierre Changeux, and F. Jacob concluded that the inhibition of an enzyme by the end product of its pathway required a second active site on the molecule; they named the structural movement between these sites an 'allosteric transition' (Monod et al. 1963). In 1962, Hans Ris noticed the similarity in appearance of the DNA in chloroplasts to that of cyanobacteria. In 1962, Werner Arber predicted the existence of 'restriction endonuclease' enzymes, which are bacterial enzymes capable of cleaving viral DNA at points where specific nucleotide sequences occur . Between 1962 and 1964, Edelman, Baruj Benacerraf, Joseph Gally, and colleagues confirmed that antibodies of different specificities had different primary structures, i.e., amino acid sequences.  They proposed, and Christian Anfinsen, Edgar Haber, and colleagues confirmed, that antibodies also had different three-dimensional structures, i.e., they fold differently (Edelman and Benacerraf 1962; Edelman and Gally 1962).  That antibodies could be denatured and then be allowed to reform in the absence of antigen was the final disproof of the template hypothesis (E. Haber 1964).  Extending these proposals, Smithies pointed out that "for the combination of H [for heavy] and L [for light] chains to hold implications for antibody diversity..., they would have to be able to combine randomly" (Podolsky and Tauber 1997:65; Smithies 1963). In 1962, John B. Gurdon demonstrated totipotency, that is, that a fully differentiated cell still contains the genetic information to direct development of the cells in the entire animal.  He accomplished this by removing the nuclei from fertilized frogs' egg and replacing them with a cell from a single tadpole's intestine.  The frogs grown in this way had identical genetic constitutions, that is, they were clones. In 1962, S. Cohen isolated epidermal growth factor. In 1962, Michel Jouvet showed that REM sleep was controlled by the pontine brain stem. In 1962, Rachel Louise Carson published Silent Spring, which concerned the dangers of pesticides. In 1962, Lederman, Melvin Schwartz, and Jack Steinberger identified the muon neutrino, "produced primarily as a result of the decay of the pion" (Danby et al. 1962:36).  In 1962, Gold, in "The Arrow of Time," said that the Universe's expansion is the only real marker for the privileged direction of time (Gold 1962).   In 1962, an Aerobee rocket, flown by a group led by Riccardo Giacconi, found the first source of X-rays, Scorpius X-1, outside the Solar System and, also, the more general X-ray background.  X-rays, like gamma rays and infrared radiation rarely penetrate the Earth's atmosphere. In 1962, Paul Baran described 'packet switching,' the breaking down of data into labelled packets, and how this would be crucial for the realization of a computer network. In 1962, Thomas S. Kuhn, in The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, wrote that "discovery commences with the awareness of anomaly, i.e., with the recognition that nature has somehow violated the paradigm-induced expectations that govern normal science" (Kuhn 1962:52-53).  Indeed, a new paradigm is formed because it is incommensurable in any of several possible ways to the old theory and retained because it is useful, not because it is real.     In 1963, Cyril Ponnamperuma, R. Mariner, and Carl Sagan irradiated a solution of adenine, ribose, and phosphoric acid with ultraviolet light at a strength comparable to the primitive terrestial atmosphere and produced the nucleoside adenosine in the laboratory (Sagan 1965:214).  In 1963, Jerne invented the hemolytic plaque technique for screening large numbers of cells and capable of finding rare antibody producers.  It proved critical to the development of monoclonal antibodies ' (Monod et al. 1963). In 1963, Stephanie Louise Kwolek synthesized polybenzamide, or PBA, a liquid crystalline polymer, used in lightweight body armor. In 1963, Murray Gell-Mann and, independently, George Zweig, invented the notion of a more fundamental particle than neutrons and protons which Gell-Mann named the 'quark.'  The eightfold way scheme requires that quarks have charges of 1/3 and 2/3, not previously allowed in elementary particles.  Quarks, described mathematically as SU(3) triplet groups, were predicted to come in six ' flavors,' of which there are three 'colors,' or charges of each: 'up,' 'down,' and 'strange.'  For Gell-Mann, his model was purely "schematic" and quarks were "purely mathematical" (Gell-Mann 1964:169), "not little objects so much as they were patterns, symmetries underlying nature" (Johnson 1999:216).  For Zweig, on the other hand, they were always tiny particles, as indeed it turned out they are.  Most physicists believe that quarks and leptons represent the simplest level of structure. In 1963, Roy Patrick Kerr described the anticipated properties of a rapidly rotating black-hole: it is elliptical; its surface area is less than that of a static black-hole of equivalent mass; if its rotation is sufficiently rapid, the area of the event horizon is reduced to zero; the area around the rotating hole rotates as well; and "a new, inner event horizon forms, and it becomes possible to travel through the black-hole, and emerge into a new universe or perhaps another part of our Universe" (Dictionary of Astronomy 1997:255). In 1963, a rocket, flown by a group led by Herbert Friedman, showed X-rays coming from the general direction of the Crab Nebulae, which Friedman suggested might be coming from a neutron star left behind by a supernova. In 1963, Edward Lorenz found what was probably the first example of a 'strange attractor,' a flow in phase space in which orbits converge to an object which is neither a fixed point nor a limit cycle. In 1963 and 1964, Imre Lakatos, in Proofs and Refutations, suggested that mathematics develops by a process of conjecture, followed by attempts to prove it, that is, reduce it to other conjectures.     In 1964, Louis Leaky identified and named Homo habilis. In 1964, Nirenberg and Phillip Leder found that lengths of artificial RNA as short as three bases were sufficient to make the ribosomes bind with the kind of transfer-RNA complementary to one codon (Nirenberg and Leder 1964). In 1964, Har Gobind Khorana perfected the biochemistry needed to make long strands of RNA with known, simple repeating sequences. In 1964, Charles Yanofsky established the co-linearity of the gene and the enzyme for making tryptophan in E. coli. In 1964, William D. Hamilton contributed to the theory of evolution the notion of 'inclusive fitness,' i.e., that fitness--high fitness meaning high selectibility--should include the survival and reproduction of kin.  The formula by which this is ascertained states that a gene will increase in frequency in a population if b, the benefit to the recipient, divided by c, the cost to the actor, both measured as changes in the expected number of offspring resulting from the act, is equivalent to k where k is greater than 1 divided by r, the relatedness of the actor to the recipient, or "the coefficients of relationship appropriate to the neighbors whom he affects: unity for clonal individuals, one-half for sibs, one-quarter for half-sibs, one-eighth for cousins, [etc.] and finally whose relationship can be considered negligibly small" (Hamilton 1964:8). In 1964,Bell, in "On the Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen Paradox," using the E-P-R assumption of 'local reality,' turned the E-P-R thought experiment into "an accurately formulated mathematical theorem" ('t Hooft 1997:175), which set "a strict limit on the possible level of correlation for simultaneous two-particle results....  Quantum mechanics à la Bohr predicts that, under some circumstances the degree of cooperation should exceed Bell's limit [and] thus opens the way for a direct test of the foundations of quantum mechanics, and the decisive discrimination between Einstein's idea of a locally real world, and Bohr's conception of a somewhat ghostly world full of subatomic conspiracy" (Davies and Brown 1986:17).  In other words, the measurements, on a statistical basis, will be unequal, if common sense prevails.  This is known as Bell's inequality.  If Bell's inequality is violated, this "reveals a fundamental truth about the Universe, that there are correlations which take place instantaneously, regardless of the separation between the objects involved" (Gribbin 2000:24).  "Bell's theorem was a great discovery because it showed that an important question that had previously been considered as a philosophical one could be decided by experiment" (Park 1990:343).  In 1964, James Cronin and Val Fitch demonstrated that when one type of kaon, a neutral particle which is its own antiparticle, decays it leaves very slightly more positrons than electrons.  This process violates conservation of charge conjugation (C) and sometimes parity (P), but in combination with time (T), or CPT, symmetry is always maintained. In 1964, Peter Higgs invented a way of evading Goldstone's theorem, known as the 'Higgs mechanism.'  "It solved the mass problem for particles of spin-1 at the cost of introducing a new kind of massive particle, the spin-0 'Higgs boson'" (Brown et al. 1997a:11). Higgs particles drag on the movement of quarks and electrons, producing inertia, the essence of mass. In 1964, Nicholas Samios, using the Brookhaven accelerator, discovered the particle, omega-minus, whose existence Gell-Mann and Ne'eman had predicted on the basis of their periodic table.  In 1964, Wheeler, while contemplating classical gravitation as it approaches the final state of recontraction, pointed out "a direct tie between classical and quantum concepts [by way of] the integral [or Hamiltonian] of the Lagrange function" (Wheeler 1964:330).  The question he asked was this: With the help of the quantum principle, can geometry be constructed out of more basic elements without dimensionality?  Later, Wheeler called this underlying element 'pregeometry.'  More primordial than either Riemann's geometry or Bohr's particles, pregeometry is identical to 'quantum fluctuation,' and, somehow, the quantum principle itself (Wheeler 1971:1203).  By 1964, Merle F. Walker, Alfred H. Joy, and Robert P. Kraft had established that "membership in a binary system is a necessary condition for a star to become a nova....  One of the components is usually a blue white dwarf star and the other is a red star of about the same mass.  Apparently, as the large, cool red star evolves, it expands into a region where the gravity of the small hot white dwarf predominates.  As a result, some of the hydrogen-rich material of the red star flows onto the white dwarf star" (Lang and Gingerich 1979:421-422). In 1964, Jesse L. Greenstein and Maarten Schmidt identified several known radio sources as 'quasi-stellar' objects, or quasars, and interpreted them to be distant and superluminous with large cosmological redshifts and small angular sizes.     By the mid-1960s, Ruth Sager reported numerous incidences of non-chromosomal mutation in a green algae, Chlamydomonas, all of which demonstrated the same pattern of maternal transmission. In the mid-1960s, Sonneborn, still working with Paramecium, confirmed by grafting tests that the genetic basis for its morphology is contained in its cortex (Sonneborn 1970).     In 1965, Emile Zuckerkandl and Pauling said that molecular sequences can reveal evolutionary relationships to an extend that phenotypic criteria and molecular functions cannot (Zuckerkandl and Pauling 1965).  Beginning in 1965, Eric R. Kandel published reports on the synaptic facilitation of memory in Aplasia californica, a marine mollusk with a remarkably simple nervous system, and proved that biochemical change at the receptor level is the molecular basis of memory (Kandel and Tauc 1965). In 1965, Norbert Hilschmann sequenced Bence-Jones proteins, which are light chains of myeloma globulins found in the urine of myeloma patients, and determined that they possessed different amino acid sequences in their 'variable' and 'common' regions. Later in 1965, William Dreyer and J. Claude Bennett proposed that within each Bence-Jones cell the variable region existed as an episome which would pair with the single common gene at a specific base sequence.  Today, this is known as 'V-C translocation,' although at the time their theory was most noted for its hypothesis that the genetic material was in the germline (Dreyer and Bennett 1965). In 1965, R. Bruce Merrifield and John Morrow Stewart invented solid-phase peptide synthesis in which one end of a growing peptide is attached to a tiny plastic bead and amino acids are added individually(Merrifield and Stewart 1965). In 1965, Cambridge Instruments produced the first commercial scanning electron microscope. [added 02/01/03] In 1965, Holley achieved the first sequencing of a nucleic acid, a transfer RNA molecule known as alanine (Holley 1968). [added 02/01/03] In 1965, Nambu proposed an unbroken-symmetry color gauge theory for hadrons which "had to consist of each of the three colors, or a color and an anti-color, so that the net [charge] was always zero" (Johnson 1999:283; Nambu 1966:133-142).  In 1965, Arno Allan Penzias and Robert Woodrow Wilson, while testing some microwave-receiving equipment, discovered cosmic background radiation (CBR) which yielded "noise temperature [of] a value about 3.5 degrees K. higher than expected" and concluded it was coming in all directions with no obvious source and was not "due to radio sources of types known to exist" (Penzias and Wilson 1965:421).  Robert Henry Dicke, Phillip James Edwin Peebles, and colleagues explained the "excess radiation as the residual temperature of the primeval explosion that initiated the expansion of the Universe" (Lang and Gingerich 1979:873).  The implication is that intergalactic space is above absolute zero, or about 3 degrees K.  CBR together with the extant amount of helium is corroberated by extrapolation to the point in time when the Universe was a few seconds old and hot enough for nuclear reactions to occur.  This, in turn, led to a drastic shift of the consensus to favor acceptance of the big-bang cosmology. In 1965, Hoyle and Jayant V. Narlikar revised the steady-state model by raising the coupling constant by an extremely large factor in order to account for background radiation and through the suggestion that, rather than the old homogenous model, the Universe was locally fluctuating and unstable (Hoyle and Narlikar 1966:168,170). In 1965, Orhan Berktay, building on earlier work by sonar researchers, discovered that ultrasound signals are distorted in water in a mathematically predictable way. In 1965, Roger Brown, in Social Psychology, wrote that categorization, or naming, for a child, begins at the level of distinctive action: you smell flowers and you pet cats and you throw balls.  Further categorization moves in either an abstract or a concrete direction: upward to superordinate categories (like plant and animal) and downward to subordinate categories (like jonquil and Siamese). In 1965, Noam Chomsky, in Aspects of the Theory of Syntax, said that grammars of particular languages "are supplemented by [an innate] universal grammar that accomodates the creative aspect of language use and expresses the deep-seated regularities which, being universal, are omitted from the [particular] grammar itself" (Chomsky 1965:6).  The universal aspects of "the linquistic intuition--the tacit competence--of the native speaker" he called 'generative grammar' (ibid.:27).     In 1966, David Phillips solved the three-dimensional structure of an enzyme, lysozyme (Blake et al. 1967). In 1966, Walter Gilbert confirmed the existence of repressor molecules, establishing that the gene responsible for making betagalactosidase was repressed by something which would only detach from the gene when lactose was present (Gilbert and Müller-Hill 1966). Shortly thereafter, Mark Ptashne also isolated a repressor and confirmed it was DNA (Ptashne 1967). In 1966, Terje Lømo observed that a brief high-frequency train of stimuli to the hippocampus produces an increase in the excitory synaptic potential in the post-synaptic neurons which can be long lasting.  This is known as 'long-term potentiation (LTP).' From 1966 until the 1980s, Kwang W. Jeon observed amoeba being infected by bacteria and then the few survivors losing their disease but not the bacterial 'germs' which had become indispensible, i.e., symbiotic, to the lives of the amoebae. In 1966, Jacques Oudin chose the term 'ideotype' to denote the class of antigenic determinants peculiar to a particular antibody from a specific individual.  This may contrasted with 'allotypes,' a term coined earlier by Oudin, which are protein products of different alleles of the same gene. In 1966, Brenner and Cesar Milstein devised a hypermutation model of antibody diversity in which they postulated an error-prone polymerase (Brenner and Milstein 1966). By 1966, through the use of Nirenberg's and Khorana's techniques, all twenty amino acids were decoded, including a number of 'degenerate' variations.  "Degeneracy is different from strict redundancy but can include redundancy as a specific case....  Degenerate groups are isofunctional but nonisomorphic" (Edelman 1978:59). "Three codons, the triplets UAA, UAG, and UGA, had no amino acids assigned to them. One by one, in experiments in phage genetics by Brenner and independently by Alan Garen..., and last by Brenner and Crick in 1967, these three triplets were proved to be nonsense codons, whose function was to signal the end of the polypeptide chain" (Judson 1979:488; Stretton et al. 1966; Crick and Brenner 1967). Also in 1966, Crick, in The Croonian Lecture, proposed a compact table of the standard bases of RNA, uracil (U), cytosine (C), adenine (A), and guanine (G), in which the code is still always displayed (Crick 1966). In DNA, thymine replaces uracil. [revised 02/01/03] In 1966, Lewontin and J. L. Hubby, surveying gene-controlled protein variants, demonstrated that between eight and fifteen percent of the loci in the Drosophila pseudoobscura genome are heterozygous (Lewontin and Hubby 1966). In 1966, Benzer, working with Drosophila mutants, intiated the study of the relations between genes and behavior (Benzer 1967). [added 02/01/03] In 1966, George C. Williams, in Adaption and Natural Selection, supported genic selection, defining a gene "as any hereditary information for which there is a favorable or unfavorable selection bias equal to several or many times its rate of endogenous change" (Williams 1966:25). In 1966, Zel'dovich and Novikov proposed that neutron stars and black-holes would be found in close binary systems. In 1966, S. S. Gershtein and Zel'dovich noted that "relict neutrinos could make an appreciable contribution to the present cosmic mean mass density" (Peebles 1993:422), making neutrinos a candidate for dark matter.  In 1966, Robert V. Wagoner, Fowler, and Hoyle established that "significant quantities of only [deutrium, helium3, helium4, and lithium7] can be produced in the universal fireball" or in large masses of gas that collapse to a similarly hot, dense state; also, the synthesis of elements at very high temperatures and very short time scales, i.e., 'bounces,' "bridge the mass gaps through 3  He4 ® C12 and mainly produce metals of the iron group, plus a small amount of heavier elements" (Wagoner et al. 1967:3).     In 1967, Lynn Margulis established that the main internal structures of eukaryotic cells originated as independent living creatures.  Known as 'endosymbionts,' these organisms were "originally taken up in the course of feeding by an unusually large host cell that had already acquired many properties now associated with eukaryotic cells" (de Duvé 1996: ).   In 1967, Edwin S. Lennox and M. Cohn revised the Brenner-Milstein model, characterized it as a 'somatic' model, as opposed to a 'germline' model, and named the nucleotide, where the error-prone polymerase operated, the 'generator of diversity,' or GOD (Lennox and Cohn 1967). In 1967, Kornberg, Mehran Goulian, and Robert L. Sinsheimer synthesized a biologically active viral DNA, using as a template a single-stranded DNA chain from fX174 which requires no protein coat to infect bacteria (Kornberg et al. 1967). In 1967, Reiji Okazaki showed that newly synthesized DNA requires a DNA fragment as a starter.  These fragments are replicated discontinuously and then spiced together. In 1967, Judah Folkman began the development of his theory that cancerous tumors could be stopped by inhibiting the first growth of blood vessels to them.  Earlier, he had developed the first implantable drug-delivery system, later called Norplant. In 1967, Gurdon, by transplanting somatic material into frog's eggs, discovered that the synthesis of RNA and DNA changes to the kind of synthesis characteristic of the host cell nucleus (Gurdon 1968). In 1967, Aaron Klug concluded that viruses had a geodesic and crystalline structure. In 1967, Donald Mosier established experimentally that, in order to generate an immune system antibody response, lymphocytes must interact with non-lymphoidal cells, such as macrophage (Mosier 1967). [In 1967, Jerne, facetiously imposing molecular terminology on immunologists, labelled those favoring the cellular point of view, such as Metchnikoff, Burnet, and M. Cohn, 'cis-immunologists' and those favoring the molecular point of view, such as Edelman and Porter, 'trans-immunologists.'  These attitudes fell roughly from the traditional disagreement between the 'globalists,' or holists, and the reductionists.  At the time and in the sense which Jerne intended the distinction, it referred to where the respective disciplines were coming from: "The trans-immunologists...start at the end, with the structure of antibody molecules, hoping to work their way backwards, and the cis-immunologists...start at the beginning, and with the effects of antigenic exposure, hoping to work their way forwards" (Jerne 1967:591). In 1967, Steven Weinberg and, independently the following year, Abdus Salam completed the somewhat earlier observation of Glashow that the weak and electromagnetic forces share a number of common features: If the main difference between them is mass versus massless, "the spontaneous breaking of the underlying gauge symmetry" by a minute violation of parity in a weak neutral interaction permits the mass of the weak force to be treated as "a secondary phenomena, leaving the gauge symmetry of the dynamics itself intact" (Davies and Brown 1988:54-55).  A violation of parity may be illustrated by two asymmetric options after a phase transition, e.g., one among the iron filings around a cooling magnet "will arbitrarily pick one of the possible directions [as the negative pole and] the effect propagates" (Johnson 1999:278).  Applying this idea to cosmogeny, the primordial symmetry of the fourfold superforce broke down as the Universe cooled (Ibid.:355); "pure spirit gives way to material being," like the myth of falling from grace (Ibid.:278).  Glashow's algebra unified these forces by combining two mathematical groups--what Cartan called SU(2) x U(1)--into a theory of 'electroweak force,' reminiscent of Maxwell's demonstration that electricity and magnetism were part of a more embracing scheme. The theory predicts the existence of the carriers of the weak force, the 'Z,' 'W+,' and 'W -,' all confirmed in 1983/1984, and a heavy particle with spin 0, the Higgs boson.  This process, also known as the Weinberg-Salam phase transition, probably occurred about 10-10 of the first second. In 1967, Sakharov set forth three principles that "must apply to any process which could produce matter particles preferentially in the early Universe....  First, there must be processes which produce baryons out of non-baryons.  ['Baryons' are made up of three quarks with a quantum number +1.]  Second, these baryon interactions...must violate both C and CP conservation....  And, third, the Universe must evolve from a state of thermal equilibrium into a state of disequilibrium--there must be a definite flow of time, so that CP processes together can be non-conserved, even though CPT remains conserved" (Gribbin 1998a:251). In 1967, Sakharov proposed that "the metrical elasticity of space [is] a sort of displacement effect" (Sakharov 1968:1040), or, in other words, he proposed a microscopic foundation for gravitation based on the energy of an elastic deformation (curvature) created by quantum fluctuations of the vacuum.  In 1967, Bryce Seligman DeWitt took the canonical Hamiltonian approach to quantizing gravity, providing a cosmological formalism, HY = 0, with the wave function obeying a functional differential equation, known as the Wheeler-DeWitt equation, which is an analogue of the Schrödinger equation.  Imagine the four-dimensional space-time sliced up into three-surfaces and concentrate on the variables defined thereon: The Hamiltonian wave function "evolves into a superposition of vectors representing the possible values of some system variable together with apparatus 'readings' " (DeWitt 1967:1140).  Since, due to the uncertainty relations, no spacetimes exist at the quantum gravity level, the equation is timeless, or, alternatively, "different possible configurations [in Everett's sense] are the instants of time" (Barbour 2000:247).  In 1967, Franco Pacini pointed out the the gravitational energy released when a star collapses would be converted to rotational energy.  "A normal star like the Sun [would] speed up from a rotation period of 27 days to a rotation period of much less than a second when it becomes a neutron star" (Lang and Gingerich 1979:494).  He further pointed out that a "very strong magnetic field" would be created and that "by this means a large amount of energy and momentum could be pumped from the neutron star into the supernova remnant," such as in the Crab Nebulae (Pacini 1967:567). In 1967, Anthony Hewish brought into use a dipole radio telescope designed to investigate 'scintillting' radio sources, that is, quasars, and S. Jocelyn Bell determined that the highly regular pulses of a radio source from outer space originate in neutron stars.  These were named 'pulsars,' even though it was soon obvious they were not pulsing, but rotating and emitting radio waves in the manner that a lighthouse emits light. In 1967, Arthur Samuels finished building a computerized checkers player which could model the opponent's options, recognize its tactics, and make predictions on that basis. In 1967, Walter J. Ong, in The Presence of the Word, wrote that the academic tradition in the West is "a massive device for institutionalizing the polemic stances originally fostered in oral culture because of its problems of information storage and its consequent overspecialization in heroic figures and interpersonal struggle as a means of interpreting actuality" (Ong 1967:236).     In 1968, Norman Geschwind and Walter Levitsky showed that in male and female humans there are characteristic anatomical differences, e.g., the size of the planum temporale in the hemispheres of the brain (Geschwind and Levitsky 1968). In 1968, Donald Roy Forsdyke proposed that, within the immune system, "two separable and distinquishable signals [were] required to separate inactivation by self from activation by nonself" (Cohn 1994:30; Forsdyke 1968). In 1968, Lionel F. Jaffe, working with Fucus eggs, described the role of ionic current in developmental patterning (L. F. Jaffe 1969; L. A. Jaffe and Cross 1986). In 1968, Motoo Kimura formulated the neutral theory of evolution which holds that almost all evolution at the molecular level is due to random drift, in contrast to neo-Darwinians who hold that natural selection plays the more prominent role.  Subsequently, the discovery of various 'silent' genes, invisible to natural selection, have lent support to the concept of evolution by neutral genes.  Neutral theory offers a baseline for evaluating the significance of selection and adaptive change. In 1968, Arber discovered the restriction endonuclease in Escherichia coli B. At the same time, Meselson and Robert Yuan discovered it in Escherichia coli K. These endonuclease recognize specific sequences but cut the DNA at random places and were known as Type I (Arber 1968). [added 02/01/03] In 1968, Sanger and colleaques, applying another new sequencing technique in which a DNA molecule is stopped at various stages of replication, reported a twelve nucleotide sequence from bacteriophage gamma. [added 02/01/03] In 1968, Elias James Corey and colleagues synthesized five different prostaglandins using a methodology, retrosynthetic analysis, Corey had developed wherein the planning process began with the desired molecule, instead of the initial chemicals, and created maps of many possible compounds and reactions. This system made it possible to use computers for chemical synthesis. [added 02/01/03] In 1968, Jurgen Habermas pointed out that "psychoanalysis consists of the hermeneutic interpretation of the complex text that is provided to the analyst by his subject," not the physics of the mind, as Freud supposed (Stent 1985:217). In 1968, Gold predicted that a rotating neutron star ought to gradually slow down, which was soon confirmed by the pulse rate at the Crab Nebulae. In 1968, Eric E. Becklin and Gerry Neugebauer showed that the Milky Way's galactic nucleus is observable at 22,000 Å. In 1968, ARPA , under Lawrence G. Roberts, contracted with Bolt, Beranek, and Newman, or BBN, to build ARPANET, the prototype of the computer internet.     In 1969, Kilmer McCully discovered a correlation between heart disease and high homocysteine levels, probably occasioned by deficiencies in vitamins B6, B12, and folic acid. In 1969, Calvin published Chemical Evolution in which he gave several autocatalytic scenarios for the origin of life. In 1969, de Duvé identified the role of 'peroxisomes,' a subcellular microorganism, to be oxygen detoxifiers.  They accomplish this by converting oxygen to hydrogen peroxide which in turn destroys an enzyme called 'catalase.'  They also contain an enzyme which removes superoxide ions (de Duvé 1996:56).   In 1969, Glashow, John Iliopoulos, and Luciano Maiani introduced a fourth quark, named 'charm.' In 1969, Marcian Ted Hoff designed the first microprocessor, an integrated circuit semiconductor chip which was able to receive instructions and send data. In 1969, Penrose discovered a process for extracting energy from a rotating, or Kerr-type, black-hole: If, when sending a pair of 'virtual particles' against the direction of the spin and into the area immediately outside a black-hole, the ergosphere, the pair were to split, one part entering the black-hole and the other escaping and becoming 'real,' the latter fragment may have greater energy than its entirety had to begin with.  This extra energy is surrendered by the black-hole which must slow its rotation slightly.  This is known as the Penrose process (Penrose 1969:252; Penrose and Floyd 1971:177-178).